Viruses are microorganisms that depend, to some degree, on host cell components for their growth and replication. Viral infection and replication in host cells generally results in disease, whether the host is an animal or plant. Human diseases caused by viral infections include the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and hepatitis. A general discussion of this field is presented in Fundamental Virology, Second Edition, (ed. B. N. Fields, D. M. Knipe, R. M. Chanock, M. S. Hirsh, J. L. Melnick, T. P. Monath, and B. Roizman, Raven Press, Ltd., New York, N.Y. 1991).
Retrovirus Replication
Retroviruses comprise a large family of viruses that primarily infect vertebrates. Many diseases, including the induction of some tumors, are associated with retroviral infection (see Fundamental Virology, supra, pp. 645-708). All retroviruses, regardless of their clinical manifestations, have related structures and modes of replication.
Retroviruses contain an RNA genome that is replicated through a DNA intermediate. Inside the cell, the viral genome serves as a template for the synthesis of a double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule that subsequently integrates into the genome of the host cell. This integration occasionally results in the induction of a tumor in the infected host organism. Following integration, a complex sequence of events leads to the production of progeny virions which are released from the infected cell.
Early in the retroviral life cycle, the RNA genome is copied into DNA by the virally encoded reverse transcriptase (RT). This enzyme can use both RNA and DNA templates, thereby producing the first strand of DNA (the negative strand) from the infecting RNA genome and a complementary second strand (the positive strand) of DNA using the first DNA strand as a template. To synthesize these DNA strands, the RT utilizes cellular substrates called deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTP).
Human retroviruses can be grouped into the leukemia viruses (HTLV type viruses) and the immunodeficiency viruses (HIV type viruses). HTLV infection may lead to one form of leukemia. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by a form of HIV, with HIV-1 being more virulent than HIV-2. Both HTLV and HIV infect peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL).
Other animal retroviruses include feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and lentiviruses. Virulent FeLV infection generally results in fatal aplastic anemia in cats. Lentiviruses cause a variety of neurological and immunological diseases such as visna in sheep and infectious anemia in horses.
HIV Infection
HIV-1 was first identified as the causative agent of AIDS in 1983. The AIDS pandemic is now one of the most serious health problems worldwide. Catastrophic medical and social consequences are likely to extend into the next century. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that between eight and ten million people are currently infected with HIV, and that approximately ten times as many individuals will be affected in the next decade. The large pool of HIV carriers makes the development of effective antiviral treatments a medical priority.
Hepatitis B Infection
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is one of at least three (A, B and C) viruses that selectively infect liver cells (for a general discussion of HBV see Fundamental Virology, supra, pp. 989-1021). HBV infections tend to be persistent with minimal liver damage or with chronic hepatitis that may lead to cirrhosis or liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma or HCC). Worldwide, more than 200 million people infected with HBV.
Other Viruses
Several other viruses that infect humans, animals and plants also depend on reverse transcriptase for replication. These include retroviruses such as the leukemia viruses known to exist in several species, including HTLV-1 in humans, as well as reverse transcriptase dependent DNA viruses, such as the cauliflower mosaic virus (a plant virus).
Antiviral Therapies
There is a critical need to develop effective drug treatments to combat RT dependent viruses such as HIV. Such efforts were recently urged in the United Kingdom-Irish-French Concorde Trial conclusions which reported that the nucleoside analog zidovudine (AZT), a mainstay in the treatment of patients infected with HIV-1, failed to improve the survival or disease progression in asymptomatic patients. Other nucleoside analogs like didanosine (ddI) are currently under evaluation. The effects of ddI on disease progression and patient survival endpoints have not been adequately investigated. Non-competitive HIV-1 RT inhibitors and HIV-1 protease inhibitors have also been recently developed. Despite the high efficacy of these compounds, the initial in vitrolin vivo testing has been characterized by the rapid onset of variants of HIV-1 resistant to these drugs (escape mutants). Despite having different antiviral activities and pharmacokinetics properties, the drugs mentioned here all directly target HIV-1 proteins.
Although this latter approach must be continued, we have developed a different antiviral strategy that targets one or more cellular components that are required for the replication of reverse transcriptase dependent viruses.